BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Behaviour modification assumes that virtually all human behaviour is learned and the best way to correct behavioural problems is through retraining ... controlling the consequences to shape the behaviour.
Behavior modification is a technique of altering an individual's reactions to stimuli through positive reinforcement and the extinction of maladaptive behavior.
While founded in behaviorism, Behavior modification has long been used by psychotherapists, parents, and caretakers of the disabled, generally without any underlying behaviorist philosophy. It involves the most basic of methods to alter human behavior, such as reward and punishment, aversion therapy, reinforcement, and even biofeedback. The cultivation of life skills are often a central focus.
Analysis of the patient’s thoughts is not required, but many non-behaviorists feel the therapy can be powerfully improved with such cognitive analysis. Punishment is also frowned upon in many contexts, with extinction of conditioned reflexes often in its place.
A major focus of Behavior modification is giving compliments, approval, encouragement and affirmation; a ratio of 5 compliments for every one complaint is found to be most effectual in altering another's behavior in a desired manner.
Behavior-based approaches to improving occupational safety performance focus on the study of safety behaviors before and after various interventions to the safety behavior of the individuals involved. The three items for introduction of a behavior-based system are: antecedent, behavior and consequence (ABC). According to behavior modification theory, worker behavior may be influenced by systematically reinforcing the right behavior until a new habit if formed.
In addition to behaviorism and psychiatry where the subject is considered as being a totally independent being with no context, we need to consider psychotherapy, sociology and ancient wisdom, including religion where people are viewing as being in a social context.
From a sociological point-of-view, if punishment is too harsh or the withholding of rewards is too harsh, the subject may seem to be corrected of the maladaptive behavior by scientific measurements, but if a bad example is set -- as described in social learning theory. This bad example and the bad feelings that are a result, as in causing an affective disorder (i.e. an emotional disorder), the subject could cause the re-infliction of punishment as a chain reaction in society. The punishment and the bad feelings that result may spread through society and be the cause of a contagious reaction referred to as social illness.
There are those who believe that much of psychology is less important than ancient wisdom. This philosophy is stated succinctly as "Men are learned and they think themselves wise." Those who are well-educated in the social sciences should not forget ancient wisdom.
For example a good example of ancient religious wisdom is, "Do unto others as you would have done unto you."
Ancient wisdom from many cultures states that mind, body, and spirit are one. Also, none of us live in isolation. Isolation can be an opportunity for a subject to be protected from being over-stimulated, but solitary confinement, in contrast, could be a punishment. Solitary Confinement could be too harsh. The difference is to consider what the subject needs. Deciding what the subject needs requires good judgment. Good judgment requires perception and intuition on behalf of the authority figure.
It's easy to criticize authority figures, but often times they may be overwhelmed and do the wrong thing. Caretakers need to have breaks to meditate and relax with frequent breaks of leisure activity, depending upon their stress levels.
There is a cost associated with caretakers having more breaks and longer breaks, but not to do this has a cost too. We have to consider false economy. It is very costly to our societies if people are treated badly by those in authority. It is very costly if Corrections officers are over-stressed. Similarly, those that work in our psychiatric in-patient institutions need to be well-chosen by human resource departments. In addition, they also need to have frequent breaks and need to have sufficient manpower to control their patients without resorting to detrimental behaviors, that might be a bad example to the patients, who might propagate these bad behaviors to society upon their eventual release.
Most in-patients are released and can contribute to society. It would be a great burden on society if they were all locked up for life. We simply cannot afford that cost.
Also of great importance is that authorities, those that have the power to reward, to withhold rewards, or to have the power to punish, set a good example for the subject that they are trying to influence.
Just as important as influencing the subject to behave as desired is to have the subject thinking right, cognitively and feeling well, affectively.
Ancient wisdom says that "As ye sow, so shall ye reap". This could be interpreted to mean, "Don't scare people -- as a punishment -- you will necessarily scare yourself, and the bad feeling may well spread like a disease through society as a reaction to your initial stimulus."
Another bit of ancient wisdom, there are three ways to teach, example, example, and example.
Causes and Consequences of Behaviour...
Behaviour modification focuses on the consequences not on the causes of behaviour. It is important to note that cause is antecedent to behaviour while consequence is subsequent to behaviour.
Ex: when my younger son was about two, he would wake up every morning and cry. If I were to use the behaviour modification approach, I should ignore his crying. But this might lead to more distraught.
I guessed that the reason for his behaviour could be that there was no one else in the room when he woke up and he cried in fear. So every morning I would drop whatever I was doing and rush into the bedroom with a broad smile and a chirpy "Good morning" whenever I heard him arousing from his sleep. I did this over a period of time and his crying stopped.
Is your child misbehaving because he is restless or because he is rebellious? Without discerning, we may use the wrong method of discipline.
What is behaviour modification?
Behaviour modification can be used to increase desirable skills as well as to decrease undesirable problematic behaviour. Two well accepted definition of behaviour modifications are:
“Behaviour modification is a technique wherein environmental events are arranged so as to produce a specific change in the observable behaviour” (Ulmann & Kransner, 1965; O’Leary, 1977)
“When the method of behavioural science and its experimental finding are systematically applied with the intent of altering behaviour, the technique is called Behaviour modification” (Sulzer & Mayer, 1972)
Why to Manage Problem Behaviours?
It is important for teachers to manage problem behaviours in children because:
- Problem behaviours reduce the social acceptability of the child
- Problem behaviours may harm the child.
- It may harm others
- It may interfere in the child's learning process at school Dr home
- It may interfere in the learning process of other children at school or home
- It may be socially unacceptable or inappropriate for the child's age
- It may interfere in the performance of certain other behaviours already learnt by the child.
Types of Problem Behaviour/ Maladaptive Behaviours
1) Violent and destructive behaviours: These include threatening or doing physical harm to others, damaging personal or others articles such as clothes, books, breaking windows, etc. or having violent temper or temper tantrum.
2) Antisocial behaviour: These include teasing or gossiping about others, bossing or manipulating others, disrupting other's activities, being inconsiderate of others, using bad language, etc.
3) Rebellious behaviour: These include ignoring regulations, rules or regular routines, resisting requests or orders, running away from home or school, misbehaving in group situations.
4) Untrustworthy behaviour: These include telling lies, cheating, or stealing.
5) Withdrawal: These include being inactive, withdrawn or shy.
6) Stereotyped behaviour and odd mannerisms: These include repetitive acts which have no functional value such as body rocking, moving head back and forth, waving fingers, etc. Odd mannerisms may include, for example, holding head tilted, walking with fingers in ears, or hands on the head, etc.
7) Inappropriate interpersonal manners: These include behaviours such as talking too close to other's face, hugging or squeezing others, touching others inappropriately, etc.
8) Unacceptable vocal habits: These include behaviours such as giggling, laughing inappropriately, making unpleasant noises, or repeating a word over and over again.
9) Unacceptable eccentric habits: examples of these include, smelling every thing, stuffing pockets with papers, etc, eating inedible, thumb sucking grinding teeth etc.
10) Self abusive behaviours: These include biting or slapping self, banging head or other parts of the body, pulling ones own hair, etc.
11) Hyperactive tendencies: These include talking excessively, not sitting still for any length of time, etc.
12) Sexually aberrant behaviour: examples include, masturbating openly, exposing own private parts in public, hugging others in public, etc.
13) Psychological disturbances: Examples include, over estimating own abilities, reacting poorly to criticism or frustration, demanding excessive attention, pretending to be ill, etc.
Steps Involved In Behaviour Management Programmes
1. Identification of problem behaviours
Any programme of behaviour management in children must begin with the identification of specific problem behaviours posed by each child. There are many ways of identifying problem behaviours in children, such as, by means of directly observing the child, interviewing parents/ caretakers of the child, using a checklist, etc. Many times a child may present just one problem, or more than one problem behaviour. Identifying problem behaviours is the first step towards managing them.
2. Statement of problem behaviours
After identifying the behaviour problems in a given child, the next step is to write them in an objective way. For example, it is not proper to write that "the child is naughty", because being "naughty" may mean different things to different people. It may mean that the child "does not sit at one place for more than fifteen seconds", or that the child "pulls hair", or that he "snatches things from others", etc. Thus, it is important to state each problem behaviour specifically in observable and measurable terms.
3. Selection of problem behaviours
After identifying the various problem behaviours in a child, and after stating them in observable and measurable terms, we need to then select a specific problem behaviour which we want to change first. This step is called as prioritising specific problem behaviours. It is always preferable to select only one or two problem behaviours at a time, rather than trying to manage all of them at the same time.
Some guidelines for selecting and prioritising problem behaviours are given below:
- Choose only one or two problem behaviours at a time for management.
- Initially, choose the problem behaviour/s which we may find easy to manage. This will help gain confidence in managing more difficult problem behaviours later.
- Choose problem behaviour/s which pose greater danger either to the child himself, or to others in the environment.
- Choose problem behaviour/s which interfere most with the child's, or others classroom learning/ teaching activities.
- Choose specific problem behaviours for intervention only after due consideration about their relative frequency, duration or severity, that is, how many times it occurs, how long it occurs, or how severe the behaviour is, etc.
- Choose problem behaviour/s so that managing them will help the child to involve more in classroom/ school learning activities.
- Choose problem behaviour/s in consultation with the parents especially when it comes to managing them in home situation.
4. Identification of rewards
The identification of rewards is an important step in the development of a Behaviour Management Programme. There are many ways of selecting appropriate rewards for children, such as, by observing a child's behaviour, asking the child directly, asking parents/ caretakers who know the child, etc. Alter identifying specific rewards for a given child or group of children, they must be arranged in a hierarchy from the most preferred to the least preferred reward. II is only then that the teacher will be able to use the selected rewards judiciously to increase skill behaviours or decrease problem behaviours in children.
5. Recording problem behaviours
Before starting to manage problem behaviours, we need to keep a measure or record of such behaviour/s as they exist currently in the child. This is called as baseline recording. However, recording of the problem behaviour/ s need to continue even while implementing the intervention programme.
Some of the reasons for recording problem behaviour are:
- Recording helps us to decide whether specific problem behaviour is indeed serious enough to merit management.
- Recording helps us to know whether any changes are really taking place at all in the problem behaviour while implementing the behaviour management programme.
- Recording is a useful and an objective way of conveying the benefits of implementing a behaviour management programme to others. Other teachers, visitors and especially the parents can look at records to know how the problem behaviours were before the starting of the intervention programme and what have been the results during or after the programme. This helps in increasing the confidence of the teacher in carrying more such programmes for children.
- Recording also helps us to know whether any changes need to be made in the intervention programme in case the' methods decided to be used are not proving effective. .
- Before starting the management programme, baseline recording can be done for minimum three sessions or till such a time that the pattern of existing behaviour is established, that is, till we are able to get a complete picture of the child's existing problem behaviour.
There are many ways of recording problem behaviours. Before beginning to record, we have to decide on the method to be used for recording specific behaviours.
A. Event Recording
This refers to recording the number of times a specific problem behaviour occurs in a given child.
B. Duration Recording
There are some problem behaviours which occur very few times. But, if they occur even once, they may continue for a long time. In such cases, it is best to use duration recording techniques, where the duration (or how long) of a given problem behaviour is recorded.
C. Interval Recording
When problem behaviours occur for specific number of times, we can use event recording techniques. When they occur over a specific period of time, we can use duration recording techniques.
However, in actual classroom situations, it may be difficult for teachers to continuously observe and record the total frequency or duration of a given problem behaviour. Under such circumstances, we set apart specific intervals of time In a period or day to record whether the specific problem behaviour has occurred or not. If the problem behaviour has occurred many times or even onC8 within that specified interval of time, it is recorded as one occurrence.
D. Time Sampling
Another way of recording specific problem behaviours is to observe the child and record at specific points of time whether the said behaviour has occurred or not. This is one of the most widely used and economical technique of recording which can be easily used by the teacher in the group or classroom setting.
Once a specific recording technique is chosen for measuring a problem behaviour, the such technique must be used through out, that is, during all the stages of implementation as well as evaluation of the intervention programme for that problem behaviour. It is desirable to keep a systematic daily record of behaviour problem/s in every child with disability.
However, due to constraints of time it may not be possible for the teacher to continuously record problem behaviours in children. Under such circumstances, the teacher must at least note down reliable impressions about the performance of target behaviour/s chosen for management.
6. Functional analysis of problem behaviours
All behaviours, both skill behaviours and problem behaviours occur because they serve a purpose for the individual. This is true for every human being. Even, when two children show the same problem behaviour, the factors contributing to the problem behaviour may be different for each child. The management of problem behaviours for each child must then be individualised and based upon the understanding of the factors controlling the problem behaviours. If problem behaviours are managed using adhoc methods without an understanding of the factors controlling the problem behaviours, there is a great risk of mismanagement. Such factors may only lead to an increase rather than decrease in the problem behaviours.
There are a number of models available for analysing behaviour problems. One of the most simple models known as A - B - C model is presented below. We need to use this model to analyse and understand the problem behaviours in terms of three major components:
A. What happens immediately BEFORE the behaviour?
This is called as ANTECEDENT factors.
B. What happens DURING the behaviour?
This is called as a BEHAVIOUR.
C. What happens immediately AFTER the behaviour?
This is called as CONSEQUENCE factors.
Understanding ‘Before' (antecedent) Factors
Analysis of antecedents controlling a problem behaviour include answering the following questions
1) When does the problem behaviour generally occur?
2) Are there particular times of the day when the problem behaviour tends to occur more?
Example, during morning hours, or meal times: etc.
3) With whom does the problem behaviour occur? Example does it occur more the in presence of specific persons/teacher, etc.
4) Where does the problem behaviour occur? Are there specific places or situations when the problem behaviour occurs more? Example, in the school play ground, or classroom, or at home, or when the child is sitting alone, etc.
5) Why did the problem behaviour occur? This includes finding out what factors immediately led to the problem behaviour. For example, was the child told to do something, or was the child refused something before the occurrence of the problem behaviour, etc.
6) The teacher must reassess what is being taught to a given child showing behaviour problems Sometimes a child may show a problem behaviour even because of factors related to teaching or the teaching situation. For example, if the task being taught to the child is too difficult for him to understand or achieve or is beyond the difficulty level manageable by the child, etc.
Understanding 'During' (behaviour) Factors
Analysis of ‘during’ factors include, use of recording techniques to answer the following questions:
1. How many times does the problem behaviour occur?
2. For how long does the problem behaviour occur?
Understanding 'After' (consequences) Factors
Analysis of the 'after' factors include answering the following questions
1. What do people in the environment exactly do to stop the specific problem behaviour?
2. What effect does the problem behaviour have on the given child or others?
3. How is the child benefiting by indulging in the problem behaviour?
The analysis of consequences or after factors shows that each behaviour of the child is linked with benefits. If there were no benefits the behaviour would cease to occur. Let us examine some of the factors or benefits which children seem to get when they indulge in problem behaviours. Analysis of these factors will help us to understand and manage several problem behaviours.
Attention seeking factors:
We must find out whether any particular problem behaviour is occurring to get attention. If the problem behaviour tends to occur more when we are' not paying attention to the child, and stops when we amend to the child, it means it is an attention seeking behaviour.
Self stimulating factors:
Sometimes children learn to indulge in repetitive behaviours, such as, body rocking, finger flicking, etc. This is especially true of severely and profoundly retarded children. Usually self stimulatory behaviours increase when these children are left alone, unstipulated or under stimulated or at times over stimulated in their environments. When such children are engaged in a useful activity, these self-stimulatory behaviours tend to reduce.
Skill deficit factors:
Some problem behaviours in children occur due to skill deficits. When a child has not learnt to behave or respond in appropriate ways, his problem behaviour may be indirect expression of this underlying skill deficit. For example: a child with poor communication skills, and who does not know how to say "give me the ball" learns to get the ball from the other child by snatching it. In such cases, teaching and building up appropriate skill behaviours become an important task to replace such problem behaviours.
Escape:
Many times children may indulge in problem behaviours in order to escape a difficult situation. It may be to get away from specific persons or activities they dislike. If the child's problem behaviour increases in the presence of demands and stops when the demands are removed, it suggests that the child is indulging in the problem behaviour to escape certain demands or situations.
Tangible factors:
Some problem behaviours in children may be actually fetching them tangible material rewards.
For example, if a teacher gives a toy to a crying child so as to make him stop crying, the child
may temporarily stop crying.
But in the long run, and indirectly, the teacher may have actually taught him to cry more as that would easily fetch him a tangible reward. If the problem behaviour stops when a tangible reward is presented, the function of that problem behaviour could be tangible.
It is important to understand that behaviours of children with disabilities can occur due to a combination of many antecedent as well as consequence factors or functions which must be analyses.
7. Development and implementation of behaviour management programmes
Based on a thorough understanding of antecedent and consequence factors controlling specific problem behaviours in children, the teacher must decide about the package programme consisting of various techniques to be used for managing problem behaviour.
If we discover that 'before' factors are more important in determining a specific problem behaviour, we must use technique 8R that can gain control over these situational factors triggering the problem behaviour.
Guidelines for Developing a Behaviour Management Programme
- Remove pleasant consequences following a problem behaviour.
- Provide pleasant consequences following good or desirable behaviours.
- In case the child has been habitually receiving benefits by indulging in a problem behaviour, slop those ¬benefits. Instead, provide the same benefits whenever the child performs a skilled behaviour.
- Teach desirable behaviours which may serve the same purpose as that of problem behaviour. For example, teach the child to say or gesture "Give me ball" to get the ball instead of hilling the other child and gelling the ball.
- Plan the consequences to occur when the child behaves in a desired way or undesired way. For example, present the child with a reward when the child says: "Give me ball" and present an unpleasant consequence when he hits other children.
- For long lasting effects, manage problem behaviours by not only changing or removing the antecedents, but also, by changing the consequences.
- Punishment techniques should be used as last resort. However, if behaviours are harmful to the child or to others, or interfere in learning, the teacher can judiciously plan to use them for the benefit of the child. .
- If we choose even a mild punishment technique, then ensure the use of differential reinforcement also in the package programme.
8. Evaluation of behavioural management programme
With the effective use of all the steps in management of problem behaviours, teachers can succeed in changing the problem behaviours in children. Keeping regular records of the child's behaviour is the best way of evaluating if the particular problem behaviour/s they had targeted for change has indeed changed or not. However teachers can also periodically assess the child.
General Considerations for Using Behavioural Techniques in Managing Problem Behaviours
The following points are to be kept in mind before using any technique of managing problem behaviours
- A single child may show a number of problem behaviours. The teacher must select the appropriate technique for managing each of these problem behaviours. Thinking that the same technique will help manage all the problem behaviours,l1lay not be true.
- Two or more children with disabilities may show the same problem behaviour. Yet they may need different techniques to manage the same problem behaviour. This may be because the, factors. Controlling the problem behaviour may be different in each child even though the problem behaviour may be the same.
- There are no ready made packages to manage behaviour problems in children. The behavioural techniques to manage specific problem behaviours in a given child is based upon an understanding of the unique combination of "before" and "after" factors controlling the particular problem behaviour in an individual child. Teachers need to individualise and identify specific techniques to manage each problem behaviour.
- Behaviour Management Programme is n long term undertaking. On the one hand, it involves decrease of inappropriate behaviours; and. on the other hand, it necessitates the teaching of more appropriate behaviours to children.
Behavioural Techniques in Problem Behaviour Management
Restructuring of the environment
Many a times, not only consequences maintain problem behaviour, but they are also maintained, or occur due to particular antecedent factors, or stimulus factors. When we find out that there is something in the immediate environment which is leading to problem behaviour, then attempts are made to change the antecedent behaviour, if possible, so that the problem behaviour shall not occur following such a change.
For example, if the child hits, pulls the hair of a boy In class; changing his seat and making him sit with some other boy in the class may help or if a child sits next to the window in the class, concentration is less on the given task, but when his seat is changed next to the wall, he is able to concentrate more on the task. Usually the technique has to be used along with other techniques for more effective results.
Extinction
Rearranging the consequences of a behaviour problem so that attention or activity rewards do not follow, is more commonly known as ignoring. This includes non presentation of a reward attention. Ignoring means NOT coaxing, NOT chasing behind the child, NOT scolding, NOT giving an activity, NOT looking at him, almost not noticing. Ignoring is the easiest consequence to describe, yet one of the most difficult to do effectively.
Some problems in using extinction
Some of the problem behaviours cannot be ignored. For example, if the child is harming others or himself, at that time intervention by another person is essential.
The problem behaviour initially shows an increase before it actually comes down by using extinction method. If extinction is used then all teachers or all family members have to apply this technique following the particular problem behaviour, otherwise if attention is not given by one teacher the child can obtain it from another teacher and the problem behaviour shall be maintained.
Guidelines for Effective Use of Extinction/Ignoring Techniques
- Ignoring is the best technique to decrease attention seeking misbehaviors.
- Always use ignoring techniques for specific attention seeking misbehaviors, in combination with ways of paying attention to the child's good or deserving behaviours.
- When the technique of ignoring is used there can be an initial increase in the problem behaviours of the child. However in the long run, they will gradually decrease.
- Be consistent in the use of ignoring extinction techniques. There must be consistency in the use of extinction not only from one time to another, or one place to another, but also between two or more teachers managing the same
problem behaviour in the child. .
- While using extinction techniques, be indifferent to the problem behaviour even if
it is occurring right in .' front of you. Do not give any indication to the child that
you are aware of the misbehavior at all. Continue whatever activity you are doing at that time. Do not even look at him or stare at his face while he is still indulging
in the problem behaviour.
- Avoid giving lectures on how to behave well. Some of us have developed this
habit of giving long drawn out advice to children on "How to be a good boy, etc.
These "talks" only tend to reward the child's problem behaviour by providing
attention. Rather, catch the child when he is doing good things and provide
alienation.
- Never use extinction techniques for problem behaviours that are either dangerous
to the child himself or others.
Punishment
Punishment is the presentation or withdrawal of an event after a behaviour, that decreases the particular behaviour. This means removal of a reward or presentation of aversive stimulus following a problem behaviour.
Punishment is of the following types
1. Time Out
2. Physical Restraint
3. Response Cost
4. Use of Aversive Stimuli
Time Out
Many a time the behaviour problem is so disruptive that ignoring does not help. Hence, Time Out may be used. In using this technique the child is removed from tt1e reward or the reward is removed from the child following problem behaviour. The latter is more effective as one can be sure of reward removal. It is essential to establish that there is a reward present which is being removed.
Time out means putting the child in a situation where any possibility for reward iS1ernoved entirely for a fixed period of time, usually not longer than 2 to 5 minutes. For example, standing in the' corner immediately following problem behaviour or sitting alone in the hall for 2 minutes or staying in the room alone for 2 minutes. For how long the child has to be separated has to be worked out before. Another method is to remove the reward from the child. For example, if the child is not eating food though 1\8 knows how to eat it, he throws around the food, and then takes away the food plate for a few minutes (2 to 5 minute)
It is important to note that whatever we take away from the child must be considered pleasant by the child.
Application of Time Out should be done immediately following problem behaviour. It should be done not with much talking or explaining to the child. It should be done without any eye contact and more so in a mechanical way.
Guidelines for Using Time Out Effectively
- Time Out is more effective in children who are outgoing, want to be in groups, like being attended by others, etc. Children who are withdrawn, passive, or who like to stay alone may actually find time out rewarding, hence of little use.
- Be consistent in the use of time out techniques.
- Help the child to understand the rules and regulations in the use of time out techniques. Never use time out techniques according to your will and wish. Clarify to the child, rules as to when, where, how,
- why or for what specific problem behaviours time out is being used. Usually it may be impossible to communicate such rules to the child at the time. of application in the classroom. Under such circumstances, the best way to demonstrate the rules of time out is through its implementation itself.
- The time out area must be chosen carefully. The area must not have things that the child likes or any of the things which can potentially harm the child. However, it should be safe and well ventilated. It should be a boring place for the child. There should not be too many people walking in and out of the place. If a separate room is being used, care should be taken to see that there is no provision for the child to lock himself from inside.
- In case we are using a time out room, it will be convenient if we can make a provision such as a one ¬way mirror on the door of the room. Through this mirror, we can keep a watch on the child, even as the child is unable to see us.
- Time out only teaches the child what not to do. It does not teach the child what to do. In order to teach the child what to do we must combine the use of time out by giving rewards for appropriate behaviours.
Physical Restraint
Mild physical restraint is many a time helpful in bringing down aggressive behaviours. This includes restriction of the physical movement of the child. For example, tying the child's hands immediately the back for 2 minutes following biting self, or holding his hands tightly to the sides and saying emphatic 'NO' when he tears papers.
Guidelines for Use of Mild Physical Restraint
- Physical restraint should be used only for brief periods of time following a problem behaviour (preferably not more than 30 seconds).
- Physical restraint should never be attempted using ropes or chains, which would result in actual physical injury to the child. Teachers should strictly guard against these practices.
- Teachers must monitor problem behaviours very closely when they are using physical restraint. Occasionally children may start enjoying the physical restraint. This will show up if the behaviour problem shows an increase, hence, other techniques of management need to be used.
- No verbal/ gesture contact should be maintained with the child during the period of physical restraint.
- Provide rewards to the child when he/ she behave appropriately.
Response Cost
This method is generally used when tokens are being used for desirable behaviours. Following a particular problem behaviour some of the tokens earned by the child are taken back. Hence the person has to pay the cost of doing a particular undesirable behaviour.
Guidelines for Effective Use of Response Cost Techniques
- Specify and fix the rules for which specific problem behaviours, what privileges or rewards are to be lost.
- Ensure that the child understands the relationship between the problem behaviour and his earned privileges or tokens being lost.
- The fine 'or response cost 'for indulging in specific misbehaviors must be established fairly and reasonably.
- Avoid nagging, threatening or warning the child (that he/she would lose tokens, etc.) before during or after the application of response cost techniques.
- Do not become emotionally involved or feel guilty that the child has lost an earned reward.
- Be consistent in the use of response cost techniques.
- Use response cost techniques in combination with other ways of increasing desirable behaviours.
Use of Aversive Stimuli
This is the last method of treatment to be used if other training methods fail to control a particular problem. It is rarely used. However it has been used to manage life threatening behaviours such as severe head banging, severe self biting, etc.
4. Over-Correction
This technique has been given a separate heading because it is a combination of procedures. It not only teaches what the person should not do but also educates what persons should do.
It is of two types
1. Restitution
2. Positive practice
Restitution
Restitution means restoring the disturbed environment back to more than normal conditions. The person following a problem behaviour, for example, throwing his food on the ground. is asked to clean that place, not only the small area where the food was spilled, but the entire floor or a particular room. If the person refuses to clean, he has to be physically guided to do so.
Positive Practice
This includes practicing the correct ways of behaving. For example, if the child throws rubbish/paper on the floor, he is asked to pick every little paper one at a time and put it in the waste paper basket.
The two methods can be combined to control a particular problem behaviour, or sometimes one of the methods is used. For example if a child is nodding his head in a stereotypic way without causing any disturbance to the environment then only positive practice method can be used. He will be verbally instructed or physically guided to move his head to the left, then right, then up and then down following verbal instructions. These are called functional exercises because his movement of head has a functional value and purposeless nodding is modified.
Guidelines for Effective Use of Overcorrection Techniques
- The technique of overcorrection is useful only in children who can follow simple instructions.
- If a child refuses to restore the damage done by him he must be physically made to carry out the remaining steps till the overcorrection is completed.
- Do not nag, talk, lecture or argue with the child when the child is restoring the damage done by him or her.
- Never reward the child after he has finished restoring the damage to a better position than it was before.
- If a child seems to enjoy the overcorrection procedures, then it may mean (hat his problem behaviours are simply ways of seeking attention. In such cases, it is better to use alternate techniques of decreasing the problem behaviour.
5. Conveying Displeasure
In the use of this technique, the teacher is required to give clear verbal commands expressing displeasure to a child following the occurrence of a specific problem behaviour. This is also called reprimands. When Manju disturbs the class, the teacher conveys displeasure by saying, "Manju! I don't like the way you disturb the class. Look! You must sit in one place and finish the work".
Guidelines for Using Conveying Displeasure Effectively
- Convey displeasure by telling the child exactly what problem behaviour is inappropriate or undesirable. Convey displeasure immediately within seconds after the occurrence of the specific problem behaviour. Be firm in your voice or looks while conveying displeasure.
- Encourage the child to behave appropriately by including a statement about the expected appropriate behaviour while conveying what wrong she did which you did not like.
- Convey displeasure in a calm and a composed manner.
- When it is all over, do not keep on reminding the child about the past problem behaviour she had committed.
- Preferably, avoid conveying displeasure in public, that is, in front of the child's friends, peers, etc. Never disgrace or insult the child.
- Do not forget to convey pleasure when the child behaves appropriately.
6. Graduated Exposure for Fears
Graduated exposure techniques are especially Used to decrease fears in children, either in the school or home setting. The procedure of graduated exposure involves a step by step gradual exposing of the child to a feared person, place, object, or a situation.
For example, if the child has a fear of dogs, initially let him pass by the dog from a long distance while you hold his hand and while he is eating a chocolate or whatever he likes. Then, bring him closer to the dog while he gets an opportunity to observe a model with the dog. Eventually, take him closer to the dog, and if the dog is friendly, get him to touch it with his hands.
Steps in the Use of Graduated Exposure
Identify the specific .fears in the child and state them in exact behavioural terms.
Construct a step by step hierarchy to the feared person, animal, or thing as the case may be.
Expose the child in a step by step fashion along the hierarchy of fears that has been constructed.
Begin from the step wherein the child shows least fear and gradually take the child along the other steps until he reaches the final feared objective.
7. Differential Reinforcement
It is important to note that the above behaviour procedures listed, that is. Restructuring of the environment, extinction, various punishment techniques and over correction MUST be combined with rewards for desirable behaviours. Differential reinforcement means that we specify in advance, in the management plan, which are the desirable behaviours which we would reward during the management programme and which are the behaviours we will not reward.
Differential rewards can be applied in various ways
Differential reward of opposite behaviours
While using this method, the teacher rewards that appropriate behaviour in a child which is exactly opposite to the problem behaviour the teacher wants to decrease. For example, if a child shows "out of seat" behaviour, the teacher can take every opportunity to reward its opposite "on seat" behaviour. The teacher must make sure that the opposite behaviour is appropriate and by doing which the child simultaneously cannot indulge in the problem behaviour. Other examples include, to reward sharing behaviour in order to bring down snatching behaviours or putting things at appropriate places for throwing things, etc.
Differential rewards of other behaviours
This method requires the teacher to reward the child at the end of every pre-decided time interval during which targeted problem behaviour did not occur. For example, to bring down "out of seat" behaviour, the teacher decides to immediately reward the child at the end of each five minute interval if the child did not get up front his Slate. According to this technique the reward is given to the child for not showing the problem behaviour during a specific period of time. This time is gradually increased. The disadvantage of this method is that even if the child indulged in any other problem behaviour during the five minute interval than the targeted "out of seat" behaviour, he or she will be entitled for the reward.
Differential reward of low rate behaviour
When it is the intention of the teacher only to reduce the intensity of a misbehavior and not to eliminate that behaviour completely, this technique is useful. For example, if a child speaks too loudly he is rewarded only when he speaks slowly. If a child asks permission to go to the toilet more frequently, then reward him if he goes to the toilet only once in three hours.
Differential reward of alternate behaviours
In this method, the teacher identifies other desirable behaviours that the child is required to perform and rewards such behaviours immediately. This technique is used along with other techniques for decreasing problem behaviours.
8. Self Management Techniques
In case of children with mild mental retardation, particularly at the upper age levels, teachers can use techniques which make them more responsible to manage their own skill behaviours or problem behaviours. The use of these methods will help increase self control in children whereby also they would start taking the responsibility for their behaviours. There are many forms of self management techniques that can be tried with better functioning children in the school or classroom settings.
(i) Self Observation
The first step in the use of self management techniques is to teach the child to observe his own behavioural in the given situations in which they occur.
(ii) Self Recording Techniques
Children can be taught to keep records of their own skill behaviours and l or problem behaviours by maintaining a daily diary.
(iii) Self Cueing Techniques
The child must be trained not only in the techniques of self recording specific target behaviours, but also in giving cues or hints to oneself whenever and wherever the behaviour is to be increased or decreased.
(iv) Self Reward Techniques
Most children with disabilities depend greatly on external rewards for learning or maintaining their behaviours. Teachers must direct these children to seek internal rewards for their behaviours in the form of self satisfaction, feeling of achievement or success on completion of .specific tasks or even. Giving themselves reward for their better behaviours and better performances. For example, the child could be trained to tell himself "If I finish my work by such-and-such time, I shall go out to play". In case he does not finish the work in time he must not go out to play.
(v) Correspondence Training
As part of self management techniques, teachers can train children will disabilities to make positive self- statements about how they would behave in specific situations. These statements made by the child help the child to act corresponding to what he had committed.
For example, if a teacher observes that one of the children hit others. snatches bags. or uses abusive language in the games period, then she can ask that child to speak out or write as to how he plans to behave during the games period. The child commits by saying, "/ will not hit anybody, I will share my bat with others, I will be polite to others," etc. Initially, the child can be prompted to speak out or write down such positive statements. Immediall31y after the games class is over, the teacher asks the child to speak out or write down or convey through gestures as to how he had behaved in the games class. If his behaviour corresponded well with the statements made earlier, the teacher can reward the child or the child can reward himself. This gives an opportunity for children to evaluate their own behaviours and the statements made by them act as cues for appropriate behaviours.
(vi) Anger Control Techniques
Some higher functioning children can be trained to observe, identify, record and manage their own anger behaviours by using self management techniques. Teachers can guide children by observing the following steps:
- Begin helping the child to recognise that he/she is angry in a given situation,
- Train him to properly verbalise his anger by saying "I am angry"
- Help him to discover the immediate reason for his anger and allow him to verbalise details about what made him angry
- Help him to find out the accompanying thoughts and feelings when he is angry
- Help the child to replace his angry thoughts/ feelings with more adaptive ones
- As anger leads to physiological responses like muscular tension, increased heart rate, sweating, etc., the child must be instructed to relax by performing deep breathing exercises or lying down on a bed for some time
Involving Parents in Behaviour Management Programmes
- When parents/ families are involved, any programme of behaviour change initiated at school can be carried home for further practice and supplementary teaching. This strengthens the behaviours of the child and increases the rate of learning.
- Parents/ family involvement in the teaching or training of children with disabilities increase the personal worth and sense of participation. Parents begin to feel more responsible for the fulfillment of their child's needs and requirements.
- Parents/ families understand their child better than anyone else. This knowledge can be utilized by the teachers to select appropriate and functional behavioural objectives for teaching the child
- It is important to note that home teaching occurs in the natural environment of the parent and child. What needs to be taught at school first and then transferred to home can be directly taught at home. Some skill behaviours, such as bathing occur naturally in the home situation than in artificially created conditions at the day school. These skills can be best taught at home by involving parents/ families in the teaching and training programmes of their children with disabilities.
In general
Behaviours are termed problematic if they are dangerous to self or others, inappropriate for the child's age, interfere with learning or when they are socially deviant.
The specific steps in identifying and managing problem behaviours include, identifying and stating the problem behaviours, prioritising a specific behaviour/s for management, identification of rewards, recording the baseline behaviour/s, conducting a functional analysis, and development of a suitable behaviour management programme followed by periodic evaluation of the implemented programme.
The specific methods of recording problem behaviours include event recording, duration recording, interval recording and time sampling respectively.
Analysis of problem behaviours is carried out in terms of before (antecedents), during (behaviour), and after (consequence) factors; and also. in terms of identification of the specific functions maintaining these behaviours.
The specific guidelines to develop and implement behavioural package programmes for children with disabilities are. removal of pleasant consequences following a problem behaviour, provision of pleasant consequences following n desirable behaviour, teaching pre-requisite skills, using differential reward techniques, etc.
Periodic evaluation of the behavioural management programmes must be carried out to ascertain the nature or extent to which behavioural changes has taken place, reasons for minimal or no changes if seen, etc.
Periodic evaluation of the behavioural management programmes must be carried out to ascertain the nature or extent to which behavioural changes has taken place, reasons for minimal or no changes if seen, etc.
There are several techniques for management of problem behaviours in children with disabilities, such as, changing the antecedents, extinction/ignoring, time out, physical restraint, response cost, restitution, conveying displeasure, gradual exposure for fears, use of differential rewards, and self management techniques.
When problem behaviours are triggered by factors like the particular settings, places, persons or situations, etc., it is appropriate to these the technique of changing the antecedents.
Extinction involves removal of attention rewards following a problem behaviour.
Time out involves removal of the child from the reward or removal of the reward from the child following the occurrence of problem behaviour. There are many types of time out for use in the school or classroom settings.
Physical restraint involves restricting the physical movements of the child for some time following the occurrence of problem behaviour.
Response cost involves the payment of a fine or the cost for indulging in a problem behaviour. This includes the procedure of giving away some thing or event which the child has earned from showing desirable behaviours.
Restitution requires the child to restore the disturbed situation following a problem behaviour to a state that is much better than what it was before the occurrence of the problem behaviour.
Conveying displeasure involves giving clear verbal commands expressing displeasure to a child following the occurrence of problem behaviour.
Graduated exposure involves a step by step gradual exposing of the child to a feared stimulus, person, place or situation.
Differential rewards are of many types, such as, differential reward of opposite behaviours, other desirable behaviours, low rate behaviours and alternate behaviours respectively. All these techniques share the common feature of rewarding appropriate behaviours or rewarding the non-occurrence of problem behaviours.
Self management techniques are to be initiated and used by persons with disabilities, themselves. There are many forms of self management, such as, self observation, self recording, self clueing, self reward, correspondence training, and anger control techniques respectively.
There are specific steps and guidelines in the use of all the above mentioned behavioural techniques for management of problem behaviours in children with disabilities.